History of the Discovery and Appreciation of Pearls- The Organic Gem Perfected by Nature- Page 4

In this manner pearls are fished in great quantities, for thence in fact come the pearls which are spread all over the world. And I can tell you the King of that State hath a very great receipt and treasure from his dues upon those pearls.

"One day, when I was admitted to his presence, he had with him a great number of pearls, which had been brought from the pearl-fishery, and these his companions were sorting. He asked me, whether I had ever seen pearl-diving, in any country which I had visited. I said, yes, I had, in the island of Finas. "I have heard of them," answered he, and then took up some pearls and added, "are there in that island any pearls equal to these?" I said, "I have seen none so good." He then said: Do not be shy; ask for what you wish. I answered: My only desire in coming to this island was, to visit the blessed foot of our forefather Adam (Adam's Peak); whom these people call Baba, while they style Eve, Mama. This, replied he, is easy enough. We will send some one with you, who shall conduct you thither."

The  above is an extract from the Travels of Ibn Batuta, translated from the abridged Arabic manuscript, preserved in the Public Library of Cambridge, and translated by Rev. Samuel Lee.

Ibn Batuta reached Ma'abar (Coromandel Coast) in southern India in 1344, after his overland trip through countries of the Middle East and Asia. He passed through Persia and Afghanistan and entered the Indian sub-continent, through northwestern India. After, his sojourn through the Indian sub-continent from the north to the south he finally reached the Coromandel Coast, referred to by Arabs as Ma'abar, distinct from the southwestern coast known as Malabaar. After gaining the acquaintance and friendship of the king of Ma'abar, Batuta and his group was given a ship to cross the Palk Straits, the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, to reach Battala (Puttalam) one of the seats of reign of the Jaffna kingdom, the other being Nallur, where he was granted an audience by the Arya Chakravarty king, Martanda Cinkaiariyan, the 5th in succession to Kulingal Chakravarti, the founder of the Arya Chakravarti dynasty in 1215. The Jaffna king treated Ibn Batuta as a royal guest, on learning that Batuta had earned the respect and confidence of the Ma'abar kings.

During his stay in Battala, on one occasion when he called on the king, he saw a great number of pearls placed in front of the king, and his servants sorting them out according to their sizes and quality. The king inquired from Batuta, whether he had ever seen pearl-diving  before, to which he replied in the affirmative. He then took some pearls and asked Batuta whether the pearls he had seen in that island were as good as these, to which Batuta confessed, he had seen none so good. The king then asked Batuta, not to be shy, and ask whatever he wished. It was then that Batuta said that his only desire in visiting the island was to visit the blessed foot print of the father of the human kind, Adam, at the summit of Adam's peak. The king agreed to his request and made arrangements to fulfil Batuta's wish. Batuta was given royal treatment and carried in a palanquin by the king's servants. Batuta's delegation on the journey to the peak included four Yogis who were regular visitors to the peak, four Brahmins, ten companions of the king and 15 men carrying provisions. The delegation left the domains of the Jaffna kingdom, passed through the territory of the Kandyan kingdom where the peak was situated, ascending the peak from the Maskeliya side, rough and difficult to ascend, without the assistance of ten iron chains fixed to the face of the cliff, starting from the "Ridge of Alexander," which Batuta refers to as "the way of Baba." After the customary rituals at the summit, the delegation descended the peak by "the way of Mama" the present day Ratnapura-Kuruvita route to the summit, which is relatively easy to ascend. The delegation appears to have reached Ratnapura (the City of Gems), and in the domain of the Kotte kingdom selected the shortest route that took them to the sea coast, reaching Galle (Kali in Tamil) a large town, and from Galle along the sea coast to Colombo (Kolumbu in Tamil), the finest and largest city in Serendib (Ceylon). From Colombo the delegation moved northwards along the sea coast reaching Buttala (Puttalam) in three days.

While giving an extensive account of his trip to Adam's peak, and stories and legends associated with the pilgrimage to the peak, Batuta also mentions about the country's natural resources, such as the pearls mentioned earlier, and also about the country's gem and mineral resources.

"The King has a white elephant, upon which he rides on feast days, having first placed on his head some very large rubies. This is the only white elephant I had ever seen. The ruby and carbuncle are found only in this country. These are not allowed to be exported, on account of the great estimation in which they are held: nor are they elsewhere dug up. But the ruby is found all over Ceylon. It is considered as property, and is sold by the inhabitants. When they dig for the ruby, they find a white stone abounding with fissures. Within this the ruby is placed. They cut it out, and give it to the polishers, who polish it until the ruby is separated from the stone. Of this there is the red, the yellow, and the cerulean. They call it the Manikam (Tamil for gem). It is a custom among them, that every ruby amounting in value to six of the golden dinars current in those parts, shall go the Emperor, who gives its value and takes it. What falls short of this goes to his attendants. All the women in the island of Ceylon have traces of coloured rubies, which they put upon their hands and legs as chains, in the place of bracelets and ankle-rings. I once saw upon the head of the white elephant seven rubies, each of which was larger than a hen's egg. I also saw in the possession of the king Ayari Shakarti, a saucer made of ruby, as large as the palm of the hand, in which he kept oil of aloes. I was much surprised at it, when the King said to me, We have them much larger, than this."

The king referred to in the above account is probably the king of the Kandyan kingdom, and the "City of Kankar" a reference to its capital city, the "City of Kandy," situated in a valley between two hills.

The significance of the two extracts from the Travels of Ibn Batuta given above

The reference to a great number of pearls being brought from the pearl fishery to the king's palace, is a clear indication that the pearl fishery of the Gulf of Mannar, on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf, in the 14th-century, was under the control of the Jaffna kingdom. The pearl fishery came under the jurisdiction of the Jaffna kingdom, ever since  its founding in 1215 by Kulingai Cakravarti (1215-1255), until the overthrow of the kingdom by the Portuguese colonialists in 1619. Among the main exports of the Jaffna kingdom to the international markets, were elephants from the Vanni, ivory and Pearls from the Gulf of Mannar.

The confession by Batuta that the pearls he had seen in Sri Lanka were the best he had ever seen, seem to indicate the high quality of the pearls that were produced from these fisheries, that was subsequently confirmed by other writers.

The extensive account of rubies found in Sri Lanka establishes the fact that Sri Lanka was the primary source of rubies in the world since very ancient times, until the discovery of Mogok rubies in the 16th-century. Batuta stresses the fact that the ruby and carbuncle were found only in Sri Lanka. Batuta's observations that most women in Sri Lanka wore strands of ruby beads on their hands and legs; the white elephant adorned with seven large rubies each of which was larger than a hen's egg; a saucer made of rubies belonging to the king in which oil of aloe was kept, seem to indicate that at one time rubies were found in abundance in the island nation, though now they are very scarce due to continuous exploitation. However, some of these rubies might well have been red spinels also found abundantly in the island. In Badakhshan, in Afghanistan, most of the large red gemstones believed to be rubies at first were subsequently shown to be red spinels. The difference between rubies and spinels became apparent only during the 18th-century, though in countries like Sri Lanka with an ancient cutting and polishing industry, such differences might have been known by ancient cutters and polishers, from the hardness of the two materials, evident from the ease of cutting and polishing the two variety's of gemstones.

6) Linschoten - Traveler who visited India in 1590

John Huyghen van Linschoten was a Dutchman who undertook a voyage to the East Indies in the 16th-century. In his book "The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies," he refers to the Gulf of Mannar pearl fishery as prosecuted under the supervision of the Portuguese on the Indian side of the Gulf from Cape Comorin to Rameshwaram. The pearl banks on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf was still under the Jaffna kingdom during this period, the Tamil kings of the kingdom successfully keeping the Portuguese at bay, for nearly 114 years. The following is an extract from Linschoten :-

"There are also other fishings for pearle, as between the Hand of Seylon, and the Cape de Comoriin, where great numbers are yearlie found, for that the King of Portingale hath a captaine there with soldiers that looketh unto it; they have yearlie at the least above 3 or 4 thousand duckers [divers], yt live onlie by fishing for pearles, and so maintaine themselves." He describes the methods of fishing, which appear to be similar to those of the present time, and adds : "When they have made an end of the day's fishing, all the fishers with the captaine, soldiers,  laborers and watchmen for the king, goe together, and taking all the pearls [pearl-oysters] that are caught that day they divide them into certaine heaps, that is, one part for the king, another part for the captaine and soldiers, the third part for the Jesuits, because they have their Cloyster in that place, and brought the countrie first into the Christian faith, and the last part for the Fishers, which is done with Justice and Equalitie. This fishing is done in the Summer tyme, and there passeth not any yeare but that divers Fishers are drowned by the Cape de Comoriin (which is called the King's fishing) and manie devoured by fishes, so that when the fishing is done there is great and pitiful noyse and cry of women and children heard. Yet the next yeare they must do the same work againe, for that they have no other means to live, as also for that they are partlie compelled thereunto by the Portingales, but most part because of the gaine."²

Comments on the above extract from Linschoten

According to the above excerpt 3,000-4,000 divers take part in the annual pearl fishing exercise. Linschoten also gives details of how the day's harvest is divided, under the supervision of the king of Portugal's representative. The harvest was divided into four equal heaps, of which one part went to the king, the second part for the captain and soldiers, the third part for the Jesuit missionaries who maintained a church in the region and were responsible for converting the entire Parawa community to Christianity, and the last part to the pearl divers. The beneficiaries of the different heaps of pearls show clearly that the writer of the account refers to the pearl fishery taking place only on the Indian side of the Gulf of Mannar. The writer also refers to the many accidents and loss of life taking place annually during the period of the fishery, by drowning and shark attacks, but the fishery continues to take place annually despite all these dangers, as the divers have no other means of livelihood.

 7) Caesar Frederick - Venetian trader and traveler who visited India between 1563 and 1581

The most detailed account of the pearl fishery of the Gulf of Mannar, in the 16th-century, during the Portuguese occupation of the coastal areas of Southern India, also from the Indian side of the Gulf is given by the Venetian trader Caesar Frederick, who visited the area between 1563 to 1581. An extract from the translation of Caesar Frederick's account reads as follows :-

"The sea that lieth between the coast which descendeth from Cao Comori, to the lowe land of Chilao, and from Island Zeilan, they call the fishing of Pearles, which fishing they make every yeare, beginning in March or April, and it lasteth fiftie dayes, but they doe not fishe every yeere in one place, but one yeere in one place, and another yeere in another place of the same sea. When the time of this fishing draweth neere, they send very good Divers, that goe to discover where the greatest heapes of Oisters bee under water, and right agaynst that place where greatest store of Oisters bee, there they make or plant a village with houses and a Bazaro, which standeth as long as the fishing time lasteth, and it is furnished with all things necessarie, and nowe and then it is neere unto places that are inhabited, and other times farre off, according to the place where they fishe. The fishermen are all Christians of the countrey, and who so will may goe to fishing, paying a certain dutie to the king of Portugall, and to the Churches of the Friers of Saint Paule, which are in that coast. All the while that they are fishing, there are three or foure Fustes armed to defend the Fishermen from Rovers.

It was my chance to bee there one time in my passage, and I saw the order that they used in fishing, which is this. There are three or foure Barkes that make consort together, which are like to our litle Pilot boates, and a little lesse, there goe seven or eight men in a boate : and I have seene in a morning a great number of them goe out, and anker in fifteene or eighteene fadome of water, which is the ordinarie depth of all that coast. When they are at anker, they cast a rope into the sea, and at the end of the rope, they make fast a great stone, and then there is readie a man that hath his nose and his eares well stopped, and an-nointed with oyle, and a basket about his necke, or under his left arme, then he goeth downe by the rope to the bottome of the Sea, and as fast as he can hee filleth the basket, and when it is full, he shaketh the rope, and his fellows that are in the Barke hale him up with the basket : and in such wise they go one by one untill they have laden their barke with oysters.

In the evening they come to the village, and then every company maketh their mountaine or heape of oysters one distant from another, in such wise that you shall see a great long rowe of mountaines or heapes of oysters, and they are not touched until such time as the fishing bee ended, and at the ende of the fishing every companie sitteth round about their mountaine or heape of oysters, and fall to opening of them, which they may easilie doe because they bee dead, drie and brittle : and if every oyster had pearles in them, it would be a very good purchase, but there are very many that have no pearles in them.

When the fishing is ended, then they see whether it bee a good gathering or a badde: there are certaine expert of the pearles whom they call Chitini, which set and make the price of pearles according to their carracts [carats or weight], beautie, and goodnesse, making :foure sorts of them. The first sort bee the round pearles, and they bee called Aia of Portugale, because the Portugales doe buy them. The second sorte which are not round, are called Aia of Bengala. The third sort which are not so good as the second, they call Aia of Canara, that is to say, the kingdome of Bezeneger. The fourth and last sort, which are the least and worst sort, are called Aia of Cambaia. Thus the price being set, there are merchants of every countrey which are readie with their money in their handes, so that in a fewe dayes all is brought up at the prises set according to the goodnesse and caracts of the pearles."

Comments on the above extract from the translation of Caesar Frederick's account

 In the first paragraph of the above extract Caesar Frederick defines the limits of the pearl fishing grounds in the Gulf of Mannar, that is roughly situated north of the latitude that joins Cape Comorin with Chilaw in Sri Lanka (Island of Zeilan). He then mentions the period during which the annual pearl fishery is conducted, and goes onto state that the site of the pearl fishing varies from year to year, the site being selected after inspection by experienced pearl divers, who select the site with the greatest concentration of pearl oysters. If the place selected is far from human habitation a temporary village is set up for the period of the fishery, with houses and a shopping area (bazaar) that stocks all the requirements of the fisherman and other officials and supervisors  that take part in the fishery, so long as the fishery lasts. The pearl fisherman taking part are all Christians, a clear reference to the Parawa community of Southern India who were converted to Christianity by the Jesuit missionary St. Francis Xavier, and who were by profession fisherman and pearl divers. However, all pearl divers taking part had to pay a tax to the King of Portugal and the Church. Armed guards are placed on duty at the site of the fishery to provide security for all those taking part in the fishery.

In the second paragraph, Caesar Frederick goes on to describe the actual pearl diving that was carried out during this period. He begins with a description of the type of boats used, the number of men that man each boat, the number of boats taking part each day in the fishery, and the depth at which the fishery was carried out. He then describes details of the actual pearl diving - casting a rope into the sea with a heavy stone tied to its end; preparation of the diver before he takes the plunge - blocking the nose and ears and oiling the body and a basket tied around the neck or under the left arm; going down the rope to the bottom of the sea; picking up oysters and filling the basket as fast as he could; shaking the rope when the basket is full that signals the colleagues in the boat to lift him up as soon as they could. The divers take turns in diving after several plunges, so that they do not get exhausted and can recover their strength. Diving continues till evening until their boat is fully laden with oysters.

In the third paragraph, the writer gives details of what transpired at the end of the day of fishing. The boats fully laden with oysters return to the village and unload their precious cargo. Each group of fisherman that work together make a huge heap of their oysters. Thus, by the end of the day, there will be several rows of heaps of oysters neatly arranged in a hut on the sea shore. The group of fisherman to whom each heap belongs then sit around their heaps and begin the task of opening the oysters and searching for pearls. Not all oysters have pearls in them. If the frequency of occurrence of pearls is high, the harvest of pearls will be good.

After taking the harvest the pearls were classified and valued by experts known as "Chitini." The pearls were classified according to their shapes. Pearls that were perfectly round or spherical were placed in the first category and were known as "Aia of Portugale," as the Portuguese merchants preferred to buy such high quality pearls. Pearls that were near spherical and perhaps button shaped were placed in the second category, and were known as "Aia of Bengala." The third category that perhaps included oval-shaped, pear-shaped and drop-shaped pearls, were placed in the third category and were known as "Aia of Canara." The fourth category that included irregular-shaped pearls, known as baroque pearls, were known as the "Aia of Cambaia." Apart from the shape of the pearls, the carat weight, and the luster, brilliance and surface quality of the pearls, which the writer refers to as "beauty and goodness" also determine the value of pearls. After the value of the pearls are set by the valuers known as "Chitini" they are sold to the merchants of different countries who assemble at the site of the annual fishery, and in a few days all the pearls are snapped up by these merchants.

8) Jean Baptiste Tavernier - Traveler and jeweler from France between 1631 - 1668.

Tavernier made six voyages to India between 1631 and 1668

Jean Bapiste Tavernier, a professional jeweler and traveler from France, who combined his desire to travel and explore new countries and cultures, with his personal business interests to buy and sell gemstones, such as diamonds, pearls, emeralds, rubies and other colored stones and jewelry, traveled to India six times between 1631 and 1668 A.D. Tavernier who was a pioneer of the trade between the West and countries of the East, such as India and Persia, made a great contribution towards the understanding and appreciation of the rich cultures of the East, by the publication of his travelogues, such as a Nouvelle Relation de l'Intérieur du Sérail du Grand Seigneur - New Account of the Interior of the Grand Serail Lord  (Paris, 1675), based on two visits to Constantinople in his first and sixth journeys, followed by Le Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier- The Six Voyages of J. B. Tavernier (2 vols. Paris, 1676) and his last Recueil de Plusieurs Relations -Several European Relations published in 1679. He wrote extensively about the diamond industry of India, based on the southeastern side of the sub-continent, that was one of his primary interests. Apart from diamonds he also wrote about colored stones like ruby, turquoise, emeralds, pearls, corals, amber, ambergris and musk, their sources, types, properties, and how they were mined or harvested.

According to Tavernier pearls discovered from the Ceylon pearl fishery were the most beautiful in water and roundness

Writing about pearls, Tavernier discusses about the pearl fishery of Bahrain and that of Al-Katif on the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf. The next source of pearls he deals with is that of the Island of Ceylon, near a large town called Mannar. According to him the pearls discovered at this fishery were the most beautiful in water and roundness, but seldom exceeded 3 or 4 carats in weight. The pearl fishing season was in March and April. He also discusses about common beliefs associated with the fishery, such as heavier the rainfall in a year, the better the fishing, and deeper the oyster lies whiter the pearls produced, as colder the water whiter was the product.

The fisheries in the days of Tavernier were first controlled by the Portuguese and later by the Dutch

The fisheries in the days of Tavernier were controlled first by the Portuguese, the colonial power that subjugated the coastal areas of Sri Lanka in the 16th-century, and took control of the pearl fishery in 1619, and later by the Dutch who ousted the Portuguese in 1658 and took control of the fisheries. Both the Portuguese and the Dutch extracted heavy duties from the pearl fisherman, because they also had to provide security for the fisherman against their enemies, the Malabaries, who sometimes came with armed boats to attack them.

Tavernier describes in detail how the pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar was carried out

Tavernier then describes how the pearl fishing is carried out. Each day around 250 ships headed out to the sea before sunrise, helped by a land breeze that lasted till around 10 a.m. The boats returned in the evening aided by a sea breeze, which begins to blow after 12 Noon. The oyster banks were situated 5 of 6 leagues out in the sea. Diving began after the fleet of boats reached the bank. From each boat one or sometimes two pearl divers operated at the same time. Each diver had a rope tied around his body under his arms, and a stone of 18 or 20 pounds attached to his big toe by another rope. Ropes from the body of the diver and the stone are held by men who remain in the boats. The divers carried nets or baskets with hooped mouths to keep them open, and the nets too were linked to the men above by ropes. The diver sank swiftly due to the weight attached to the toe. On reaching the bottom he detached the stone from the toe, which was hauled up by the men in the boat. He quickly collected the oysters from the floor of the ocean, and put them into the nets or baskets, as long as he could hold his breath. He then made a signal to the men above by pulling on the rope tied around his chest, and he was hauled up by the men as fast they could. According to Tavernier, the divers from Mannar were better than those at Bahrain and Catifa, because they could hold their breaths longer, and stay longer underwater. This was because the divers from Mannar did not use clips on their noses or cotton to block their ears, as the divers in the Persian Gulf did. After the divers were pulled up they rested for about 10 minutes regaining their normal breath, until they dive again. The baskets of oysters are also hauled up. Diving usually continued for 10-12 hours at a stretch. Fishers who needed ready money opened their oysters at once and sold whatever was found. Those who had enough to live on preferred to keep the oysters until they decayed and opened by themselves, after which they were washed and pearls separated from the debris. The flesh of pearl oysters tasted bad and was always thrown away.

9) Juan Ribeiro - Writer in 1685.

 Juan Ribero, a writer, gave a detailed account of the pearl fishery in the Gulf of Mannar, in his book "History of Ceilao" written in 1685. He estimated that around 3,000 to 5,000 boats, were engaged in the exercise annually.

10) Father Martin - Jesuit priest based in South India in 1700 A.D.

Father Martin was a Jesuit priest who was based in South India at the turn of the 18th-century. He gave a detailed description about the pearl fishing near Tuticorin, that was conducted in the year 1700 A.D.

The pearl industry during the Portuguese colonization of the coastal areas of Sri Lanka and India

Pearling activities in the Gulf of Mannar took place in an atmosphere of peace and tranquility since time immemorial, until the 15th-century when Arab dominance in world trade ended with the emergence of western nations such as Spain, Portugal, Britain, Netherlands and France. The first western nation to dominate the trade routes of the Indian Ocean were the Portuguese, who took control of the important port cities in the Indian Ocean. The port cities associated with the pearl trade in Southern India came under their control in the early 16th-century around 1510. The Portuguese initially, exacted from the local rulers an annual tribute in pearls and spices. Eventually, they took control of the pearl fishery on the Indian side of the Gulf of Mannar in 1524, by entering into a pact with the Parawas, a caste of sea-going Tamils who were by profession fisherman and pearl divers, who managed the pearl fisheries for the kings of Southern India, from time immemorial. The entry of Arab pearl divers and subsequently their Moor descendants  into the Gulf of Mannar pearl fishery from the 7th-15th centuries created a professional rivalry between the Parawa pearl divers and their Arab and Moor counterparts, that threatened their way of life and economic interests. As a result of this rivalry, the Parawa community embraced Christianity en masse and sought the protection of the Portuguese from their Arab and Moor rivals. When the Portuguese conducted the fisheries under their supervision, they allowed the native fisherman to retain one-fourth of the catch as compensation for their work, and divided the reminder to three equal portions. one for the king, the second for the Church and the third for the soldiers.

On the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf, the Portuguese were less successful, as the lucrative pearl fishing grounds in the Kondaichchi Bay were under the control of the Jaffna kingdom, which the Portuguese were not able to subdue for over a hundred years. The kings of the Jaffna kingdom, particularly Sankili I (1519-1561) successfully kept the Portuguese at bay for 114 years, even going to the extent of massacring 600-700 Parava Catholics in the Island of Mannar, who were brought by the Portuguese to take over the pearl fishery on the Sri Lankan side. The Portuguese were able to subdue the Jaffna kingdom only in 1619, 114 years after they subdued the Sinhala kingdom of Kotte in 1505. Thus, the Portuguese were able to exploit the pearl resources on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf of Mannar, only for a short period of 39 years from 1619 to 1658, when the Dutch took control of the pearl banks in 1658, after the ouster of the Portuguese from the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. Even during the short period of around 40 years they ruled Jaffna, the Portuguese had to suppress at least four rebellions against them in Jaffna. Thus, the Portuguese were more pre-occupied with missionary activities and the suppression of other religious beliefs in the island, that they had hardly any time to exploit the rich pearl resources of the Kondaichchi Bay to the full extent.

Records of the pearl fisheries during Portuguese rule appear to have been destroyed and are not available. However, details of the status of the pearl fishery during this period come to us from travelers and writers who visited the area during this period, such as John Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler, Caesar Frederick, a Venetian trader and traveler, and Tavernier, the French jeweler and traveler. From the first hand account of these travelers, especially that of Caesar Frederick, it is apparent that the revenue generated by these fisheries for the Portuguese colonialists was considerable.

The pearl fishery in the Gulf of Mannar under the Dutch colonialists

The Dutch colonialists first landed in Sri Lanka in 1602, on the eastern coast of the island near the coastal town of Batticaloa, a region that was under the domain of the Kandyan kingdom. They established friendly relations with the King of Kandy, Wimaladharmasuriya I, who sought their assistance against the Portuguese who were entrenched in their well fortified forts in the coastal areas of the island, and whose persecution of the local population was becoming increasingly unbearable. Eventually, the Dutch with the help of the Sinhalese army ousted the Portuguese from all their coastal fortifications, such as Galle, Negombo, Trincomalee and eventually Jaffna in 1658. After the fall of the Jaffna fort in 1658, the pearl banks of the Gulf of Mannar came under Dutch control. The Dutch entrusted the commercial exploitation of the resources of the island, including the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar, to the Dutch East India Company. The company began the direct exploitation of the pearl fishery beginning from the year 1666, and an estimated 200,000 people took part in the first fishery conducted by them. A description of the pearl fishery conducted by the Dutch East India Company, was given by Johann Wolfgang Heydt in 1744. According to Heydt, "

In spite of all the efforts by the Dutch East India Company, the income generated by the pearl fisheries was always second to that of cinnamon. Besides, perhaps due to over exploitation, oyster populations were becoming scarcer, and there were longer intervals between successful fisheries. Such long intervals became necessary in order to give oyster populations sufficient time for regeneration, and reach optimum levels. By the year 1746, after 80 years of managing the pearl fisheries by the Dutch East India Company, during which period only eight successful harvests of pearls were taken, the Dutch Governor Van Imhoff decided that production would improve if the fishery was handed over to the private sector. Accordingly the fishery was rented out to private entrepreneurs with effect from the year 1746. The new arrangement proved so successful, that the Dutch colonial administration decided to continue with it throughout their period of stay in Sri Lanka. The British who ousted the Dutch in 1796, decided to continue with this system of leasing, and the revenue that accrued to the British for the three years from 1796-1798 was a substantial £396,000.

The pearl industry under British rule in Sri Lanka

The British colonial authorities who continued with the Dutch policy of leasing pearling rights to private entrepreneurs, continued with this practice until 1833, but reserved the right to decide the limits of the territory to be fished and the number of days the fishery would last. However, after 1833, due to various drawbacks in the system, such as the difficulty in the proper regulation of the business, that led to deception and concealment of the production achieved and the actual proceeds realized, the government decided to operate the fisheries on its own, as it was done during the Portuguese period, giving the fisherman initially one-fourth and later one-third of the oysters harvested and retaining three-fourths and subsequently two-thirds for the government, that was sold by public auction. The new system adopted worked satisfactorily boosting the revenue of the government.

The Ceylon pearl fisheries were perhaps the most interesting and well known fisheries in the world in the past, due to a multitude of factors, such as ready accessibility; perfect and thorough organization; strict government control that inspected the pearl banks and decided on the areas to be exploited during a particular year, and the duration of the fishery; estimation of the harvest taken annually and the maintenance of records of such harvests and the revenues that accrued to the government in the previous years. The British Colonial Government also set up a "Pearl Fishery Establishment" headed by a superintendent, under whom were an inspector, many divers, sailors and attendants. While the superintendent was in overall supervision of all pearling and selling operations, the inspector and his team of divers made periodic inspections of the approximately 20 "paars" (pearl banks), to select the best "paars" that are to be exploited in a particular year and the duration of the fishing. The inspector and his team also directed the operations in the sea at the time of harvesting. The superintendent also supervised the division of the day's harvest into heaps, and also the subsequent auctions of the government's share of the harvest, whose proceeds were credited to the government treasury.

According to statistics, that were maintained by the British colonial secretary's office, the revenue that accrued to the government throughout the period of British management of the fisheries, from 1796, when the pearl banks were first taken over from the Dutch, until 1907, the year the last pearl fishery was held under British rule, was £2,098, 830 (Rs. 20,988,300). The following table gives a breakdown of the revenues collected from the pearl fisheries from 1796 to 1907, during the years the fisheries were held. The years during which the returns were significantly higher are shown separately. The returns for the lean years are combined together on the table, such as rows 4, 7,8, 9, 11  and 13.

Breakdown of revenue collected by pearling from 1796 to 1907 during the British period in Sri Lanka

Information that can be derived from the above table

1) During the 111-year period, from 1796 to 1907, the pearl fishery was under the management of the British, actual pearl harvesting was carried out only for about 53 years.

2) 1905 recorded the greatest fishery in the modern history of Ceylon, and the revenue of £251,073 received by the British colonial government, was perhaps the largest received by any government in the history of the industry.

3) The second and third highest revenue recorded during the British period was £146,000 and £140,000 during years 1798 and 1797 respectively, soon after taking over the fishery from the Dutch.

4) From 1799 to 1808 the fishery was prosecuted every other year (blank 4 years), and there were blank periods from 1810 to 1813 (4 years); 1817 to 1819 (3 years); 1821 to 1827 (7 years); 1838 to 1854 (17 years); 1864 to 1873 (10 years); 1889 to 1890 (2 years); 1892 to 1902 (11 years). Total number of blank years 58. Total number of years the fishery was managed by the British = 53 + 58 = 111 years.

5) After a blank period of 4 years from 1810 to 1813, in the year 1814 the fishery was very good bringing in a revenue of £105,187. Production however declined from 1815 to 1820. Again after a blank period of 7 years from 1821 to 1827, for the next 10 years an average revenue of £32,000 was obtained, which was better than that obtained between 1815 to 1820, but still not satisfactory. A longer blank period of 17 years then followed from 1838 to 1854, but the 9-year fishery that followed immediately from 1855 to 1863 gave an average revenue of only £18,700, with the highest recorded in 1863 of £51,017, which was quite satisfactory and highest recorded since 1814. Another blank period of 10 years followed from 1864 to 1873, and the 8-year fishery that followed soon after that, gave an average revenue of only £14,625, with the highest recorded in 1881 of £59,868, the highest after 1863. A lean period of five years followed from 1882 to 1886, and then production picked up again in 1887 giving a fair revenue of £39,609 followed by a good fishery in 1888 that gave a revenue of £80,424. Thus in the 15 years of continuous fishery from 1874 to 1888, fairly acceptable levels of production were obtained only on three occasions, 1881, 1887 and 1888. After another short blank period of 2 years from 1889 to 1890, the 1891 fishery gave significant returns of £96,370, the last and second highest for the 19th-century. The fishery was again pursued only after a blank period of 11 years in the 20th-century, every year from 1903 to 1907. In 1903, returns of £55,303 were satisfactory, but in 1904 it rose significantly to £71,050. The year that followed immediately, 1905, produced an unprecedented harvest, that has gone down as the greatest pearl fishery in the modern history of Ceylon, giving a record revenue of £251,073. Soon after that year there was a decline in production, and the returns of £137,675 and £104,000 in 1906 and 1907 respectively, was still above the average and considered as good fisheries. The 1907 fishery was the last pearl fishery conducted by the British colonial government after which the fishery was totally abandoned.

6) Out of around 53 times the fisheries were pursued, the number of times the fisheries were considered as having given good returns was only around 11. These years were 1796, 1797, 1798, 1808, 1814, 1888, 1891, 1904, 1905, 1906 and 1907. Thus successive good returns were obtained only on two occasions, 1796 to 1798 (three years) and 1904 to 1907 (four years), which was coincidentally corresponding to the beginning and end of the British exploitation of the pearl fisheries. After 1798, the next good return was after 10 years in 1808, and again after 6 years in 1814. The next good return comes only after an extraordinarily long gap of 74 years in 1888, but was followed soon after that in intervals of 3 years, in 1891 and 1904. These statistics only highlight the uncertainty of the fisheries, prosperous seasons being followed by long gaps of low or moderate returns or no fisheries at all.

The 1905 pearl fishery of Ceylon - the greatest fishery in the modern history of Ceylon

Year 1905 has gone down in the history of the pearl fishery of Ceylon, as the year that registered unprecedented pearl oyster harvests, thereby ensuring the highest returns ever not only for the British colonial government, but also the fisherman and the dealers alike. Hence the fishery that occurred in 1905 is referred to as the greatest fishery in the modern history of Sri Lanka. The period of the fishery lasted from February 20, 1905 to April 21, 1905, which gave 47 working days, excluding Sundays and 5 days of bad weather. This was said to be the longest pearl fishing period in half a century. The number of boats employed in the fishery were 318. The number of divers and attendants (manduks) who took part in the fishery were 4,991 and 4894 respectively. Their joint effort over a period of 47 working days, brought out a yield of oysters, estimated to be a whopping 81,580,716 in number.

The oysters were sold depending on their size at the rate of Rs.24 to Rs.124 per thousand. The colonial government received a revenue of Rs.2,510,727 (£251,073) from the sale of its share of two-thirds of the harvest of oysters. This was double or treble the amount realized in any previous year, and perhaps the largest received by any government in the history of the industry. Going by the amount realized by selling two-thirds of the harvest of oysters, the amount realized by the divers who were entitled to one-third of the harvest of oysters, was at least Rs.1,255,363 (£125,536). The merchants who purchased and opened the oysters bought from the government's share as well as the divers' share, must have made a profit of at least Rs.1,255,363 (£125,536) by selling the pearls recovered. Thus, the lowest estimated local value of the pearls harvested during the 1905 great pearl fishery was Rs.2,510,727 + Rs.1,255,363 + Rs.2,255,363 = Rs.5,021,453, equivalent to Sterling£ 502,145 or US$ 2,000,000, whose international market values would have been several times greater.

Following the unprecedented success of the 1905 pearl fishery, the response and enthusiasm shown for the 1906 pearl fishery was much greater than the previous year, with the participants anticipating an outcome exceeding that of the previous year or at least a repetition of the bumper harvest obtained in that year. Accordingly, there was a significant increase in the number of boats, divers and attendants employed. 473 boats, 8,600 divers and almost an equal number of attendants were engaged for the fishery, the highest number on record that was ever employed. However, the outcome of the fishery was a disappointment and went far below expectations, the estimated harvest of pearl oysters being only 67,150,641, bringing in a government revenue of only Rs.1,376,746 (£137,675). The disappointing outcome was attributed to bad weather conditions, as well as the great quantity of oysters harvested in the previous year.

The pearl banks on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf of Mannar

The pearl banks on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf of Mannar are situated in the upper end of the Gulf above the coastal city of Chilaw. The banks are situated on coral reefs known as "paars" on the wide shallow plateau off the northwest end of the Island, directly south of Adam's bridge. The calcareous bottom of the reefs are made of corals and shell deposits combined with organic remains and sand to form a compact mass, known as "paars." on which oyster beds are formed. There are approximately 20 such oyster beds or "paars" on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf of Mannar, situated at a distance of 5 to 20 miles from the shore, and at a depth of 5 to 10 fathoms. The aggregate area of the "paars" covers an area of about 50 miles in length and 20 miles in width, i.e. about 1,000 square miles. Out of the 20 "paars" only about 8 "paars" are important, yielding sufficient quantities of oysters, that could be economically exploited. The 8 "paars" known as "principal" paars are, Cheval, Madaragam, Periya, Muttuvaratu, Karativu, Vankalai, Chilaw and Condatchy, all Tamil names. The other 12 "paars" have never yielded sufficient quantities of oysters for exploitation. The constant density of the sea water in the Gulf of Mannar, standing at 1.023 and the constant temperature range of 82°F to 86°F, seem to have been conducive to the growth of pearl oysters. The "paar' known as "Periya paar" (Big paar) lying about 15 miles from the shore, in the north-south direction, with a length of 11 miles and a width of 1-2 miles, is well known for the early formation of tens of millions of oysters which mysteriously disappear before they are old enough for gathering. The disappearance of the oysters have been attributed to the shifting bottom caused by the southwest monsoon. However, the natives of the area believed that the oysters migrated from the "Periya paar" to the other "paars" situated in the Gulf, and hence referred to this "paar" as "mother paar."

The uncertainty of the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar

One of the noticeable features of the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar was its uncertainty. Only on rare instances had there been prosperous fisheries successively year after year, such as in 1796, 1797 and 1798 and 1904,1905,1906 and 1907. The trend usually was for a prosperous fishery to be followed by long periods of low or moderate returns or no fisheries at all, known as blank periods. This trend had been observed even in the past during the long history of pearling activities in the Gulf of Mannar. In the early part of the 11th-century, Al-Birouni, the Arab geographer, who served under Mahmud of Ghazni, recorded the total cessation of pearling activities for a considerable period, due to the disappearance of oysters from the pearl banks of the Gulf of Mannar. Al-Birouni believed that the disappearance of pearl oysters from the Gulf of Serendib (Ceylon) in the 11th-century and the appearance of pearl oysters at Sofala in the country of the Zends, where previously none existed, were related, and suggested that the pearls oysters from the Gulf of Serendib migrated en masse to Sofala.

Such appearances and disappearances of pearl oysters in the Gulf of Mannar, had been a common feature throughout history. One significant occurrence was reported in 1887 during the British management of the fishery. An examination of one of the reefs (paars) revealed large populations of oysters, distributed throughout an area 5 miles in length and 1½ miles in width. Determination of population density by random sampling techniques revealed a density of 600-700 oysters per square yard. Based on these observations, a total population of 164,000,000 oysters was estimated for the entire reef, which exceeded the total number taken in the preceding 60 years. It was estimated that several million dollars worth of pearls would be harvested in the following season. But a few months later, to everyone's astonishment, it was discovered that not a single oyster remained on this previously rich reef. The explanations advanced for the sudden disappearance of oysters from this reef, included destruction by the action of the sea; underwater currents sweeping the oysters away; devouring by predators; shifting bottoms caused by the southwest monsoons,  and voluntary movement of oysters to other reefs.

The most profitable period for taking pearl oysters

The Ceylon pearl oyster has a natural life span of about 8 years, and pearl oysters less than 4 years old, produce very few marketable pearls. When the oysters are 5-6 years old the yield of pearls doubles, and in the 7th-year reaches an optimum, estimated to be fourfold of the yield in the 4th-year. Beyond the 7th-year there appears to be little increase in the yield. In fact after the 7th-year the risk of the oyster dying, pearls deteriorating or becoming lost becomes greater. Thus, the most profitable period for taking pearl oysters is when they are from 5 to 7 years old. After the 5th-year the tendency for the oysters to disappear increases. Hence the risk of waiting too long is as great as beginning too early. The final decision for harvesting is taken by the inspector after consideration of various factors, and mainly if the chances of getting the most valuable returns is assured. To evaluate the potential returns from a bed, random samples of a thousand oysters were taken from about 8-10 spots on the reef using a single boat or several boats and the pearls recovered are examined and valued. If the minimum value of the pearls obtained is Rs.25-30 per thousand oysters the fishery could be conducted profitably, provided the population density was higher than an optimum value. Even during the Portuguese period, around 1650, such a system of estimating the potential turn out from a "paar"  was in place, according to Tavernier, who wrote,  ''before they fish, they try whether it will turn to any account by sending seven or eight boats to bring 1000 oysters each, which they open, and if the oysters per 1000 yield five fanos or above, they then know the fishing will turn to account." 

Advertising the pearl fishery

After the "paars" (oyster beds) to be exploited during a particular season have been selected by the Inspector of pearl reefs, wide publicity is given about the impending pearl fishery by advertising, displaying public notices in English, and the local languages Sinhalese and Tamil for the benefit of the local participants, Tamil and other Dravidian languages of South India, for the benefit of the Indian participants, and Arabic for the benefit of  participants from the Persian Gulf countries. The advertisement gives the names of the "paars" that would be open for exploitation, the estimated quantity of oysters to be removed from each "paar," the number of boats that would be employed, the date the fishery would begin and its probable duration. Notice of the fishery that usually begins in late February or early March is given in December preceding the fishery.

The following is a copy of the English notice advertising the peal fishery that was to take place at Marichchukkaddi, in Ceylon, on or about February 20, 1907

                                               NOTICE

Is hereby given that a Pearl Fishery will take place at Marichchukkaddi, in the Island of Ceylon, on or about February 20, 1907.

The Banks to be fished are :-

The Karativu, Dutch Moderagam and Alanturat Paars, estimated to contain 21,000,000 oysters, sufficient to employ 100 boats for twenty- one days with average loads of 10,000 each per day.

The North-West and Mid-West Cheval, estimated to contain 2,000,000 oysters, sufficient to employ 100 boats for two days, with average loads of 10,000 oysters.

The Muttuvaratu Paar, estimated to contain 8,000,000 oysters, sufficient to employ 100 boats for two days with average loads as before stated, each boat being fully manned by divers.

2. It is notified that fishing will begin on the first favorable day after February 19, 1907. Conditions governing the employment of divers will be issued separately.

3. Marichchukkaddi is on the mainland , eight miles by sea south of Sillavaturai, and supplies of good water and provisions can be obtained there.

4. The fishery will be conducted on account of the Ceylon Company of Pearl Fishers, Ltd., and the oysters put up for sale in such lots as may be deemed expedient.

Tamil Translation of the English Notice

Valuation samples are collected again just before the onset of the fishery and the results published for the benefit of prospective buyers of oysters

Before the actual fishery gets underway in late February, the areas to be fished are again examined and their boundaries demarcated by floating buoys. Valuation samples are collected again for a second time and the pearls found are examined and valued by independent experts, whose results are published, so that prospective buyers of oysters at auctions, may have a reliable idea of the returns expected from their investment.

The fishery begins in late February or early March, the season during which the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka has very calm seas, without any storms that can disrupt the fishing. Apart from the Tamils, Moors and some Sinhalese of the local population, tens of thousands of people from the Malabar and Madras (Tamilnadu) coasts of India, and the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf, take part in the fishery. Boats from the Indian coasts and the Arabian coasts begin to arrive just a week or two ahead of the opening of the season. On a single day sometimes fifty or more boats arrive, carrying men, women and children, and also materials for their temporary camps. They pitch their camps on the temporary settlement set up by the British colonial authorities, on the sandy seashore, with well planned and lighted streets, numerous wells and cisterns for the supply of water, public conveniences, and strict sanitary measures in place to prevent the outbreak of any diseases. "Toddis" or enclosures for decomposing the oysters harvested, and washing and separation of pearls, after they are purchased by the merchants, are constructed at a safe distance from the settlement, because of the stench that emanates from them and to minimize the risk to public health. The police, the courts, the jail, the post and telegraphic office, bank, auction hall, hospital and cemetery, all essential components for an enormous settlement of tens of thousands of people, are situated within the settlement itself or near its periphery.

The 1907 fisheries, the last of the pearl fishery conducted by the British in Sri Lanka, was centered at the temporary settlement known as Marichchukkaddi, eight miles south of Silavaturai. Within a short period the previously isolated beach becomes a hub of activity populated with thousands of people from Sri Lanka, the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian lands, speaking a multitude of tongues, where before only the sounds of the ocean waves was heard. The eight to ten thousand fisherman or divers assembled are mainly Tamils (Parawa), Moors and Arabs. Apart from the divers there are pearl merchants, mainly Chetties and Moormen. Other categories of people assembled include boat navigators and repairers, other mechanics, government officials, clerks, boat guards, koddu counters, a police force of 200 officials, provision dealers, priests and shark charmers, pawn brokers, coolies and domestic servants, and also women and children. For the entertainment of the those assembled, there are jugglers, fakirs, gamblers, female dancers, loose characters and also beggars. The entire population of this temporary settlement constituted about 40 to 50 thousand inhabitants.

The types of boats used in the fishery are as diverse as the types of people and nationalities taking part

The composition of the fishing fleet is as diverse as the various types of peoples and nationalities taking part in the fisheries. The fleet consists of several hundred boats of different sizes, with different types of hull and rigging, characteristic of the region from which the boat originated. One type is the broad and spacious Jaffna dhoni, usually painted black. A second type is the lugger-like boat from Paumben in India. A third is the very narrow and speedy Keelkarai canoes, painted in bright colors such as red, green and yellow, that turn up in large numbers for the fishery. The largest boats in the fleet, weighing 20 to 40 tons each, are the single masted lighters from Tuticorin, sharp sterned and copper bottomed. The Arab boats, big and small weighing from one to 50 tons, have artistic rigs and spoon-shaped sails, the smaller boats carrying 3 to 15 men and larger boats 15 to 30 men at the time of fishing. Another unique type of boat with three masts is the great canoe from Adirampatnam and Muttupattai on the Tanjore coast, with a curved prow and painted pale blue. Apart from these usual types of boats there may be a few boats of unique and special design, adding to the variety of boats turning up for the occasion.

Boats taking part in the fishery are first examined by officials for their sea worthiness, and required equipment for the fishing, and are registered and numbered only if found satisfactory. When the number of boats are more than what is required, the fleet is sometimes divided into two or more divisions with different colors and fishing on alternate days. In 1874 the boats were divided into three divisions, red, blue and green, with fifty boats in each division. In 1879, 1880 and 1881, they were divided into two divisions, red and blue or red and white. Again in 1903 and 1906, there were two divisions, red and white.

A breakdown of the origin of the  boats that took part in the 1905 pearl fishery

A breakdown of the 318 boats employed in the 1905 fishery gives some interesting information.

1) Keelakarai - 143 boats  - India

2) Jaffna      -   74 boats - Ceylon

3) Tuticorin  -   35 boats - India

4) Paumben -    34 boats - India

5) Mannar   -      9 boats - Ceylon

6) Nagapatnam - 6 boats - India

7) Colombo -      5 boats - Ceylon

8) Kayalpatnam- 4 boats - India

9) Tondi   -       4  boats - India

10) Devipatnam-1  boat  - India

11) Adrapatnam-1  boat  - India

12) Ammopatnam-1boat  - India

13) Koddaipatnam-1boat

Total number of boats - 318

Number of boats from India - 230

Number of boats from Ceylon - 88

Information derived from the above statistics

1) Most of the boats that took part in the fishing originated from India. The number of boats from India were almost three times the number of boats from Sri Lanka, even though the fishery was a Sri Lankan fishery. Thus, the British colonial authorities made use of Indian divers to exploit the pearl resources on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf of Mannar.

2) The highest number of boats from India came from Keelakarai. These boats were the smaller but faster canoe type of boats, that carried up to 12 people.

3) The highest number of boats from Ceylon, came from Jaffna. Thus, most of the participants from Sri Lanka were Tamils from Jaffna.

4) All the boats from India came from the Southern Indian coastal towns and villages, with a tradition of pearl fishing dating back to thousands of years.

5) Only 9 boats came from Mannar, the host city of the Ceylon fishery.

6) Only 5 boats came from Colombo, the capital city of Ceylon. The Sinhalese from southern Sri Lanka, traditionally had not taken an active part in the pearl fishery taking place in the northwest coast of the island.

Categories of people manning a boat

Depending on the size of the boats, the number of people that could be accommodated in them at the time of fishing varied from around 12 to 65, with an average of 35 for the entire fleet. Each boat was manned by a "Sammatti" (master), who represented the owner; the "Tindal" (pilot); the "Todai" (water-bailer), who apart from bailing water was also in charge of the food and drinking water; a government inspector or boat-guard whose duty was to make sure that the oysters were not opened on board; and from 5 to 30 divers depending on the size of the boat and an equal number of "Manducks" or attendants.

Breakdown of the divers employed in the 1905 fishery according to their region of origin, and information that can be derived from such  analysis

In the 1905 fishery a total of 4,991 divers were employed manning 318 boats. A breakdown of these divers according to their nationality or region of origin is quite interesting and informative.

1) Keelakarai    - 2,649 divers

2) Tamils         -   995 divers

3) Arabs          -   923 divers

4) Ceylon Moor -   424 divers

    Total          - 4991 divers

1) The highest number of divers were from Keelakarai, Southern India. These were the Indian Moormen or "Lebbes" from Keelakarai, Tondi and other villages on the Madurai coast. These Moormen were descendants of early Arab settlers from Oman, Yemen and the Hijaz, on these coastal regions of Southern India.

2) The second highest number were the Tamils, originating from Tuticorin, Rameswaram, and other coastal areas of Tamilnadu. These Tamils belonged to the "Parawa" and "Kadeiyar" castes, who were professional pearl divers since ancient times.

3) Arab divers from the Persian Gulf, originating from countries like Bahrain and Kuwait were the third highest number of divers. Like the "Parawa" divers, the Arab divers also had a wealth of experience in pearl diving passed down from generation to generation over thousands of years. Arab divers had taken part in the Gulf of Mannar pearl fishery since time immemorial. But in recent times Arab divers had appeared in the Gulf of Mannar, since 1887. The number of Arab divers taking part in the fishery had shown a phenomenal increase from 1904 to 1906, In 1904 the number of Arab divers taking part in the fishery was only 238. This number increased to 923 in 1905, and to a phenomenal 4,090 in 1906, almost 50% of the total of 8,600 divers. This was the largest number of Arab divers employed in recent times. According to G.F. Kunz the Arab divers were very energetic and skilful divers, far surpassing the Tamil Parawas. They are very hardworking coming early in the season and staying late, and working on many days even when the seas were rough, that would normally deter Indian divers from venturing out. This observation of Kunz, contrasted that of Tavernier in the 17th-century, who believed that the pearl divers from the Gulf of Mannar, meaning the Parawa divers were better than the divers of the Persian Gulf, because they could hold their breath for a longer time than the Arabs. Tavernier believed that this was because the divers from Mannar did not use clips on their noses or cotton to block their ears, as divers in the Persian Gulf did.

4) The 4th category of divers were the Ceylon Moors from Erukkalampiddi, Mannar, also descendants of early Arab settlers in these regions, but not so energetic and steady in their work as the Arabs, and commonly deserting the fishery even before the official closing.

Apart from the above category of divers there were also small numbers of divers from other regions, such as the Malayalees from the Malabar coast.

5) The above analysis also shows clearly that most of the divers employed by the British to exploit the pearl resources of the Gulf of Mannar, on the Sri Lankan side of the Gulf, were either South Indians or Arabs from the Persian Gulf. The divers available in Sri Lanka, mainly the Moor divers were not sufficient to man such a vast fishery, within a short period of time, just bout 6 or 8 weeks, when the seas were calm and safe for fishing.

 The duration of the Ceylon pearl fishery

The Ceylon Pearl Fishery was one of the shortest in the world, lasting just 6-8 weeks (1½-2 months). Most other pearl fisheries in the world lasted from 4-6 months. This was mainly due to weather conditions in the Indian Ocean region, with two seasonal monsoon winds and rains, during which the seas were very rough. The two monsoonal seasons that affected the Gulf of Mannar, were the south-west monsoon that lasted from July to September and the northeast monsoon that extended from November to February. The pearling fishery began soon after the northeast monsoons ended in late February and extended up to the end of April. The seas were relatively calm during this short period of two months, and enabled the unhindered  prosecution of the fishery. Around the month of May the inter-monsoonal rains began, before the onset of the  southwest monsoon in July. Because, of the restricted time limit of the pearl fishery, there was greater activity in the fishery during this period, compared to other pearl fisheries in the world. 

The diving methods employed by the fisherman was the same as that employed over 600 years earlier when Marco Polo visited the region

The divers get ready for their hard days work just a few hours past midnight. After waking up as early as 3.00 a.m. they have an early breakfast, perform their early morning devotions and set off in their boats in order to reach their allotted "paars" situated 5 to 20 miles away from the shore, just before sunrise. The area to be fished has already been demarcated by buoys carrying flags. The boats take-up position within the allocated area, and when all boats selected for the fishing had arrived, the guard vessel, fires a gun signaling the commencement of the fishing. The method of fishing was exactly the way Marco Polo described, when he visited the region in 1294, and later Caesar Frederick, the Venetian trader and traveler between 1563 and 1581 and Jean Baptiste Tavernier, the French traveler and jeweler between 1631 and 1668. Thus, it appears that within the last 600 years very little changes had taken place in the method of the fishery. The divers usually worked in pairs, each pair sharing a single diving stone, and descending alternately. The diving methods employed was the same as that in the Persian Gulf, the only exception being that the Indian and Sri Lankan divers did not use nose-clips, just compressing their nostrils with the fingers during the descent. This appears to limit the depth to which the divers can descend, the maximum depth being around 10 fathoms.